Code Generation and Backends

Purpose

Overview LLVM (and general compiler) backend code generation: IR legalization, SelectionDAG instruction selection, register allocation, assembly emission, and what adding a new target entails — complementing IR skills and skills/compiler-internals/llvm-passes.

When to Use

• Reading llc output for a specific target
• Understanding why IR type legalizer inserted extra ops
• Evaluating porting compiler to new architecture (high level)
• Debugging wrong code at asm layer (not IR)

Workflow

1. Backend pipeline (LLVM)

LLVM IR per function
├── IR legalizer (types/ops target supports)
├── SelectionDAGBuilder
├── LegalizeTypes / LegalizeOps
├── Instruction selection (pattern match TableGen)
├── Scheduling (pre-RA)
├── Register allocation
├── Prolog/epilog insertion
└── AsmPrinter → .s object

2. llc usage

clang -c -emit-llvm -O2 -o foo.bc foo.c
llc -march=aarch64 -O2 foo.bc -o foo.s
llc -march=riscv64 -O2 foo.bc -o foo-rv.s

3. TableGen patterns (conceptual)

def ADD32rr : Pat<(add i32 GPR:$a, GPR:$b),
                  (ADD32rr GPR:$a, GPR:$b)>;

Patterns map DAG nodes to machine instructions. .td files define registers, calling conv, instr formats.

4. Calling convention lowering

ABI rules become CC_AArch64 / CC_X86_64 in TableGen — ties to skills/computer-architecture/abi-and-calling-conventions.

5. Target triple

clang --target=arm-none-eabi -c -O2 foo.c
llc -mtriple=thumbv7em-none-eabi foo.bc

Mismatch between triple and CPU features (+neon, +crc) causes legalizer failures or suboptimal code.

6. Adding a target (outline)

1. Define register classes and instr formats in TableGen
2. Implement lowering hooks (TargetLowering)
3. AsmPrinter and MC layer for relocations
4. Builtin calling convention and ELF/COFF object writer

Full port is large — reuse existing backend closest to arch.

7. Agent usage

/code-generation-and-backends Trace how this IR add becomes AArch64 ADD instruction

Common Problems

Related Skills

• skills/compiler-internals/llvm-ir-and-passes — pre-codegen IR
• skills/compiler-internals/compiler-optimizations-deep — RA intuition
• skills/compilers/cross-gcc — embedded triples
• skills/computer-architecture/abi-and-calling-conventions — call lowering
• skills/low-level-programming/assembly-arm — read emitted asm